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PPL: The Flapless Approach & Landing (Part of Ex 13)

Numbers based on the Cessna 152: At the Flying Training Organisation (F.T.O.) where I operate all take-offs and all approaches are SHORT FIELD techniques. It is not standard practice to make FLAPLESS APPROACHES except for training purposes and subject to the weather and wind conditions. The training is for Flap failure or electrical failure affecting the operation of the Flap motor.
The main points to consider when planning a FLAPLESS APPROACH are: 1.) Increased ATTITUDE. 2.) Less DRAG. 3.) Less POWER required. 4.) Higher SPEED. 5.) Increased RATE of DESCENT. 6.) Lower DECELERATION. It IS necessary to think about the flapless approach BEFORE you commit, especially the FLARE.

Initially the Indicated Airspeed (IAS) on Base Leg should be the same as for a normal approach i.e. 65KIAS. In order to achieve this IAS, due to the lower drag, reduce the power to a lower setting than the normal 1500RPM datum. This reduced POWER should be around 1300RPM initially. LOOKOUT - ATTITUDE - INSTRUMENTS. Maintain the height (QFE)/altitude(QNH), with progressively increasing attitude, until the IAS has decreased and is approaching 65KIAS. Now adjust the attitude to maintain 65KIAS in the descent. PROGRESSIVELY ADJUST the ATTITUDE & TRIM (P.A.A.T.). Turn onto FINAL Approach and, when lined-up with the runway centre-line, maintain the IAS at 65KIAS. As briefed in The Normal Circuit & Landing Ex 13, use Power (Throttle) to control Glide Path and Elevator to control Indicated Airspeed. BUT, as already stated, this is over-simplifying the technique and the controls and inputs should be coordinated to achieve the correct approach path at the correct speed. It is not appropriate here, to reiterate how to fly an approach whilst remaining aware of the effect of the wind direction and windspeed. Please refer to The Normal Circuit & Landing Ex 13 for a reminder of these techniques.

We are concerned here with the differences that a Flapless condition makes to the approach. You will notice that the ATTITUDE is very high on the approach. On more sophisticated aircraft, the correct action would be to raise the seat (electrically with a few blips on the seat switch) in order to see over the glare shield satisfactorily. This is not possible in an aircraft of this type, BUT be prepared for a changed "picture". As with all flying, make corrections small & early rather than large & late. This is even more important with a "slippery" low drag condition such as we have now. Deceleration to a lower IAS from the required 65KIAS will be slow, but acceleration to a higher IAS will be fast. So, as with all approaches, a high level of concentration is required. Make small power changes early. Early recognition of the need for a change in power or speed is the result of an effective LOOKOUT - ATTITUDE - INSTRUMENTS technique. Because the Groundspeed (GS) is higher than for a normal approach in the same conditions, the rate of descent (RoD) will also be higher.

The aircraft is approaching the threshold at a higher IAS and at a higher RoD with a poorer view of the runway. The threshold of the runway (TH) should be crossed at 60KIAS (+ 1/2 of the HWC - see Normal Circuit and Landing Ex 13 for HWC). It is important to get the aircraft down without delay. A conventional "flare" is not appropriate. Should the flare or roundout be too high, the aircraft is likely to float a long way down the runway due to low drag because of the clean wing. It is possible to run out of runway very quickly. If there is doubt about being in a position to touchdown at the right place, at the right speed then go-around. Therefore, as the aircraft approaches the surface of the runway at the touchdown zone (peripheral vision - you are looking out at the far end of the runway!) arrest the RoD for a firm (not hard, but positive) touchdown with a gentle back pressure on the control wheel. Use aerodynamic braking. Check the brakes early in the landing run. Lower the nosewheel of the aircraft when elevator authority is about to be lost.

Normal Circuit & Landing Ex 13 via 'Blog Archive' >>>>>>>>

PPL: The Go-Around Ex 13

Based on the Cessna 152: The Go-Around is a very critical manoeuvre. It is, therefore, important to get it right. By definition, the aircraft is LOW and SLOW and is in a vulnerable condition with little energy close to the ground. The time-honoured priorities of Aviate - Navigate - Communicate apply, as they do with all aspects of flying. The priority here is to first of all fly the aircraft AND to get away safely from Mother Earth, then to navigate the aircraft and, only when these two conditions are satisfied, to communicate with ATC. A COMMON ERROR is transmitting to ATC during the early stages of the go-around manoeuvre when the priority is flying the aircraft.

The (FLY part 1.) Procedure is: Apply Full Power smoothly and without delay. This means CARB AIR to COLD at the same time as pushing the THROTTLE fully OPEN. Simultaneously pitch the aircraft up to the GO-AROUND ATTITUDE and apply the appropriate amount of RIGHT RUDDER to keep the aircraft in balance. Move the FLAP LEVER to the 10-degree* position and adjust the pitch attitude as required to maintain the speed you currently have OR a minimum of 54KIAS. If the go-around was initiated with the aircraft CLEAN then control the aircraft at a minimum of 60KIAS. Remember: Lookout - Attitude - Instruments. (*Note: A local rule at our FTO is Flap Lever 30 >>>>> 10. This is because the aircraft has an electric flap motor which moves the flaps fairly slowly).

The (NAVIGATE) Procedure is: With the aircraft in BALANCED flight check the Horizontal Indicator (HI) and fly (initially) straight ahead. Apply the appropriate amount of drift to the runway heading in order to achieve this. Of course the go-around procedure may call for a turn and a final altitude (PPL/IR), but we are only concerned here with a go-around into the circuit.

The (COMMUNICATE) Procedure is: Transmit to ATC, "G-ODAC going around".

The (FLY part 2) Procedure is: Fly straight ahead to a minimum of 300ft AAL and apply the normal technique for raising flaps and turning onto crosswind and into the circuit.

See Take-off & Climb to Downwind Ex 12 via 'Blog Archive' >>>>>

PPL: Flying a Normal Circuit & Landing Ex 13

The numbers are based on a Cessna 152: Practise your Straight and Level lessons when flying the downwind leg. Look out and fly with reference to the visual horizon. Again the principle of Lookout - Attitude - Instruments should be applied. LOOKOUT and using the visual horizon is most important. As far as possible, keep the power constant at 2150RPM (possibly tighten the throttle friction a little more) and make small elevator and aileron inputs to remain straight and level at 1000ft AAL. There is another good mnemonic to consider when pressuring the controls: C.C.H.A.T. which stands for Change - Check - Hold - Adjust - Trim. It means that should you need to change the ATTITUDE or the POWER, then make a small change, check (i.e. stop the movement), hold the change and look at the instruments, adjust if required, and finally trim. At 2150RPM the IAS should be approximately 90KIAS and there should be little or no rudder input required to balance the aircraft.

Keep a very good lookout AND listen out for other aircraft. By listening to other traffic and to ATC you can build a picture of what is going on in the airport vicinity and who is where.

Call downwind when abeam upwind end of the runway and do the pre-landing checks. These are normally BUMFFICHH: Brakes OFF Undercarriage DOWN (Fixed!) Mixture RICH Fuel ON and Sufficient for Go-around and DIVERSION Flaps AS REQUIRED Instruments Ts and Ps CHECKED and Altimeter SET Carb Heat CHECKED and set as required Hatches SECURE Harnesses SECURE and FASTENED. (Note: The Brakes should always be off in flight. the Undercarriage is 'welded' down. The Mixture is always rich below 3000ft. The Fuel should be ON else we would have had to make a forced landing somewhere, and if we are short of fuel where better to be than in the circuit? There is no ELECTRIC FUEL PUMP on a Cessna 152. Flaps should still be at Zero. Instruments are routinely checked. Why would the Hatches and Harnesses be anything but secure and fastened? For my money the important checks here are: Mixture RICH. Altimeter SET. Carb Heat CHECKED and always scan the Ts and Ps).

The wind direction and strength is ALWAYS important to the pilot who should develop an awareness of what effect the moving air mass is having on the aircraft. In an ideal world in order to land with as low a ground speed as possible the runway for landing is always that closest to into wind. Of course we do not live in an ideal world and other factors have, also, to be considered by ATC or the Authority with regards to the runway for landing. Some of these other factors could be obstacles in the approach or in the go-around path, length, slope, noise- abatement etc.

Before turning onto Base Leg have an idea of what the wind effect will be on Base Leg. Will there be a HEAD WIND COMPONENT or a TAIL WIND COMPONENT?

If there is a HEAD WIND COMPONENT then consider delaying power reduction AND to a higher power setting than the standard 1500RPM datum when you do judge it necessary , and if there is a TAIL WIND COMPONENT consider early power reduction to, possibly, a lower power setting than the standard 1500RPM datum.

Select Carb Heat ON and DECREASE POWER to the datum plus an increment or minus a decrement as stated above. The nose of the aircraft will want to drop with the decreased power. Do not let it! It is very important to maintain the height(QFE)/altitude(QNH) as power is reduced. Progressively increase the attitude as the aircraft decelerates in order to maintain the altitude. Include the ASI in your scan, and when the IAS is inside the WHITE ARC (Flap limit speed) and, depending on the HWC, select Flap 20 (pausing briefly at Flap 10 because all selections made in an aircraft are 'considered', 'measured' and 'deliberate'). It is important to stress: maintain the height/altitude as the speed reduces. The speed deceleration now 'increases', due to increased drag, and as the aircraft approaches 65KIAS start the descent at the appropriate 'glide slope angle'. The fixed pitch propeller will also mean that the RPM will have decreased, so re-adjust the power as required.

Line up with the runway centre-line and note the wind direction by observing the windsock. Apply the appropriate amount of drift to maintain the aircraft on the centre-line all the way down the approach path.

Now that the aircraft is lined up with the runway, the speed should be reduced to 60KIAS (+ 1/2 of the headwind component - HWC). E.g. if the wind is 260/12 and the runway is 23 (say 230-deg Magnetic) then the wind is 30-degrees off the runway heading and from the right. 30-degrees off = .866 of 12 = 10 and 1/2 of 10 = 5. So add 5kts to 60 = 65KIAS.

(Tip: How to quickly figure HWC: 10-degrees off centre-line = 98% of Wind. 20-degrees off centre-line = 94%, 30-degrees off = 87%, 40-degrees off = 77%, 50-degrees off = 64%, 60-degrees off = 50%, 70-degrees off = 34%, 80-degrees off = 17% and of course 90-degrees off = 0%. BUT let's be practical about this; 10 = 100%. 20 & 30 = 90%. 40 = 80%. 50 = 60%. 60 = 50%. 70 = 30%. 80 = 20%. 90 = 0%.) Thinks: maybe I will eventually put all the 'Tips' in one separate place - when I get time!

Fly the approach at 60KIAS +/- the HWC and use the Throttle and the Control Wheel to control the GLIDE PATH (or the approach path if you prefer) and the IAS. To state that you conrol the 'Glide Path' with the throttle and the 'speed' with the elevator is over-simplifying the operation. If you are high and the speed is correct then you must decrease the power. If you are low and the speed is correct then you must add power. If you are fast and on the glide path then you will have to co-ordinate elevator and throttle movement (power reduction) in order to reduce speed and stay on the correct glide path. If you are slow and on the glide path then you will have to co-ordinate elevator and throttle (power increase) in order to stay on the correct glide path. Start to develop an awareness of the 'energy' of the aircraft.

Flying the approach requires constant concentration and judgement. The questions that you should be mentally asking yourself all the time are: Am I high? Am I low? Am I fast? Am I slow? Am I left? Am I right?

In order to mentally answer these questions it is very important to keep changing the focus of our eyes (extensions of the brain!) to the runway (the DATUM) and the ASI. Look OUT, look IN, look OUT, look IN. look OUT, look IN.......................so that we are making judgements all the time with reference to the 'picture' of the runway and the IAS. There are various schools of thought about exactly where to 'look' when looking OUT. My strong advice is to look at the far end of the runway. Your peripheral vision will take care of the big picture, including obstacles in the approach, the touchdown zone and, later, the flare (or roundout) and the de-crab. Attitude flying, as stated elsewhere is of paramount importance, and the approach and flare is no exception. This is the only way to ensure a successful and safe landing every time.

Okay, we are still flying the approach.....

If the HWC is strong, then you would consider delaying selecting FLAP 30 (Landing Flap) until later in the approach. Do not add drag when more power is needed to fly the approach. If there is little or no HWC, then consider earlier selection of FLAP 30 (Landing Flap). Calm conditions can be tricky on a short runway and we will need to get the aircraft stabilised with Landing Flap at the correct speed and on the glide path in good time.

It might be a good idea to call 'Final' with the selection of Landing Flap, but remember that 'Final' is inside 4nm of the runway threshold and where you call 'Final' may depend on what is going on in the circuit.

Having selected Flap 30, the extra drag will 'bite' and the IAS will decrease with no change in power. Now fly the aircraft at 54KIAS + 1/2 HWC. You may need to add a smidgen of power and there may be an attitude change, and therefore a small trim change.

As the threshold of the runway is approached, keep the 'crab' angle on and, if the IAS was correct as you cross the threshold, close the throttle but do not allow the nose to drop. Control the attitude of the aircraft and concentrate on still looking at the far end of the runway. Peripheral vision will dictate to your brain where the ground is and where the touchdown zone is, and as you close with the runway surface, still looking as far down the runway as you can, gently pressure back on the control wheel to 'arrest the rate of descent'. Do not dive for the runway. The final part of the approach should be a continuation of the glide path. Just before touchdown push the rudder to align the aircraft with the centre-line and touchdown. Keep straight using rudder. Hold the nosewheel off the ground and use aerodynamic braking until you are about to run out of elevator authority. Now gently lower the nosewheel onto the runway and keep straight. If braking IS necessary lift your feet up to the brakes and gently apply symmetrical braking. Do not lock the wheels.

Keep aware of what is going on and do not delay vacating the runway. When clear of the runway perform the after landing scan.

PPL: Take-off and Climb to Downwind Ex 12

Short Field Take-off: (Based on Cessna 152): Organise the turn onto the runway (Tip: Windsock 'points' towards runway take-off end) so that the line-up on the centre-line of the runway is with the nosewheel straight and maximum runway ahead of the aircraft. A rolling take-off is the most efficient, but at these early stages stop the aircraft and hold it stationary on the brake pedals, check the engine Ts and Ps and re-check the carb heat, ignition at BOTH and FLAP 10-deg.
Check the wind direction and now put the control wheel (aileron) into the wind by an amount relative to the wind direction and strength. (Tip: Mentally note the wind direction for two good reasons: 1. How much drift angle to apply for the heading after take-off, and 2. Forced landing after take-off = land ahead within 30-degrees of wind direction). Apply full power against the brakes and re-check the Ts and Ps and the RPM. Release the brakes and keep straight using coarse rudder initially. Your focus of attention is now at the far end of the runway (peripheral vision is also giving your brain vital information, as always) and your focus of attention is also on the Airspeed Indicator (ASI). Of course the Ts and Ps are always important.
As the aircraft accelerates less rudder and aileron input will be required due to the airspeed effect on the control surfaces (ailerons and rudder). Quite early in the take-off run you will have effective elevator authority which will enable you to apply enough back pressure to raise the nosewheel just off the ground.
At 50 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) 'rotate' (i.e. back pressure on the control wheel) to the correct attitude for a short field take-off and simultaneously apply a degree of right rudder (slipstream effect remember? - Note: The rudder has a different function in flight to the function on the ground). So as the aircraft translates into the air the controls must now be pressured to balanced and wings level climbing flight. Rule: Lookout - Attitude - Instruments.
IF the required attitude is not exactly right having applied the principles of: lookout, adopted an attitude and checked the flight instruments (instruments = the ASI at this point for the correct short field take-off speed of 54KIAS at 10-deg flap), THEN change the attitude gently to achieve the correct IAS. Check the heading (HDG) on the Direction Indicator (DI) and adjust to the correct HDG which = runway track (TRK) + or - drift angle.
(Tip: Maximum Drift = 60/TAS X WS). The TAS will approximate indicated airspeed (KIAS) which is approximately 60KIAS (54KIAS actually). Let's assume that the windspeed is 12kts, so the maximum drift will be 60/60 X 12 = 12-degrees if the cross-wind is at 90-degrees to the runway. (Tip: Drift Angle: For each 10-degrees off of the runway, up to 60-degrees, use 1/6th of the maximum drift. So if the wind is 10-degrees off the runway use 1/6 of 12-degrees = 2-degrees of drift, 20-degrees off the runway = 2/6 of 12-degrees = 4 degrees etc, up to 60-degrees off the runway = 6/6 of 12-degrees = 12-degrees of drift). This approximation is also useful for dead-reckoning navigation. More under Exercise 18 later!
Having achieved the correct attitude the important action now is to TRIM. Remember Power - Attitude - Trim. You have full power and the correct attitude for the required speed so now TRIM.
Applying the principle of LOOKOUT - ATTITUDE - INSTRUMENTS maintain the climb straight ahead until a minimum of 300ft above airport level (AAL). [Note: QFE set on altimeter subscale = altimeter reads Height above aiport level. QNH set on altimeter subscale = altimeter reads Altitude above mean sea-level (AMSL) = add airport elevation to 300ft].
When the aircraft is above 300ft AAL lower the nose by a small amount to allow the aircraft to accelerate slowly. When the ASI reads 60KIAS minimum raise the flap to zero-degrees, i.e FLAPS UP and re-adjust the attitude for a 65KIAS climb (CLB). Again, Power - Attitude - Trim. The power has not changed, but the attitude has and so has the configuration (Flaps 10 to Flaps ZERO). Attitude flying and correct trimming are the answer to accurate and efficient flight. Do not chase the instruments, but LOOKOUT and use the visual horizon to adopt the correct ATTITUDE. Only when the attitude, speed and the power are stabilised do you TRIM. Do not 'trim' the aircraft into the attitude - this is a COMMON ERROR and useless!
Roll the aircraft into a 15-degree angle of bank climbing turn. Keep the aircraft balanced by maintaing the BALL in the middle and adopt a slightly lower pitch attitude in order to maintain the correct cimbing speed of 65KIAS. Do not trim for the turn, but anticipate the rollout by approx 1/2 of the angle of bank (AoB). You know what the wind direction and strength is approximately, so apply the drift angle using the max drift method to fly a correct crosswind HDG.
Continue the CLB to circuit height (typically 1000ft AAL). Anticipate levelling off by 10% of the rate of climb (RoC) or vertical speed (VS). VS = 500FPM = 50ft anticipation. (Sorry! The words 'Duck', Grandmother', 'Eggs', 'Suck' and 'Teach' have just come into my mind).
Make a level 30-deg angle of bank turn onto the downwind track. Leave the power at full power until the aircraft reaches cruise speed (CRZ SPD) of 90KIAS. As the aircraft accelerates towards CRZ SPD progressively and gently pitch down - Progressively Adjust Attitude - until the IAS and the altitude (ALT) have stabilised. Now reduce the power gently to CRZ POWER of 2150RPM. ATTITUDE - POWER - TRIM. (HDG = TRK +/- Drift Angle. Now TAS will stabilise at approximately 90KIAS, so max drift will be 60/90 X WS). Fly Straight & Level downwind.

Youngest pilot in Great Britain?

At age 12 is David Marchington the youngest pilot in Great Britain? (He is the person on the left of the picture by the way!)

Although not allowed, under the rules for JAR-FCL PPL(A) and United Kingdom licences, to fly solo until 16 years, David has demonstrated his ability to fly an aeroplane, including taking-off and landing. He is on target to getting his Private Pilot Licence at 17. From age 14 the dual instruction that he receives will be countable towards the experience requirements. He is already keeping a proper log of his flying hours.

Meanwhile, not only is David learning to fly an aircraft he is aquiring other important life skills including self-discipline, sense of responsibility, initiative, mental fitness, tenacity - some of the personal qualities required of a leader*.

He is also learning correct prioritisation, orientation and using applied mathematics during his flight details.

*Other qualities of a good captain as originally laid down in the R.A.F. Flying Manual are skill and experience, loyalty, personal influence and courage. The foundations are being laid.

April 8th 2008

Congratultions on successfully completing your First solo flight. A day never to be forgotten. Now we can start to think about cross-country flying and then also logging some solo cross-country flying time.

P.S. I still remember my first solo flight; it was in an air force De Havilland Chipmunk WZ879 at R.A.F. Rufforth on April 27th 1967. (I have just checked my flying logbook). Only 41 years ago!

The "Dead Reckoning Computer" OR Wizz Wheel Ex 18

I am often asked the question, "Should I use the 'wind UP' or the 'wind DOWN' method when solving the problem of finding Heading and Groundspeed on the navigation computer?
Personally I use a Jeppesen CR-5 Computer which solves the wind triangle trigonometrically and you can put the CR5 in your shirt pocket.
I also have a beautiful AristoAviat 617 which has a rotary indicator for the wind. Both of these instruments are EXCELLENT for accuracy.
I am attaching the R.A.F. teaching (at least when I was in the air force a long time ago) which should clarify any queries you may have. Nothing has changed since then, but do also study the USER MANUAL that comes with your flight navigation computer.
The important facts to remember are: HEADING (HDG) is on the same vector as TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS) and TRACK (TRK) is on the same vector as GROUNDSPEED (GS). Like oil and water, they do not mix.
The conventional PPL navigation problem is to find HEADING and GROUNDSPEED. You have measured the TRACK and you have downloaded the WINDS for your planned flight from the Met Office. So you know the track and you know the wind. We will have to assume that you also know the True Airspeed*. (At low altitudes the TAS will approximate IAS, typically 90kts for a C152). Paragraph 12 of the R.A.F. Notes addresses the problem of finding the HEADING and the GROUNDSPEED neatly (although you will note the TAS is 350kts - those were the days!! not a mere 90!!), but please read everything up to, and including Paragraph 12. *TAS another day!
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FIRST SOLO FLIGHT

No pilot ever forgets his first solo flight. Chaka the dog came along too to congratulate his master on a milestone achievement. Onwards and upwards........................

A Visitor from DURBAN

A new friend, from Durban, recently came flying with me at Derby Aero Club in a Beagle Pup 150.

He owns and flies his own Cessna Citation - standby for some pictures soon.

We flew over many of the spectacular sights of the Peak District.

This little aircraft is a pleasure to fly with excellent handling characteristics. The visibility is also very good. We both enjoyed the flight. On pages 2 - 5 are some pictures of the cockpit.

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ICAO Aeronautical Chart 1:500,000 Legend

It is not really practical to unfold an aeronautical chart in flight in order to read the legend. My answer to this issue is to photocopy the legend, re-organise it to into A5 size, and slip the pages into an A5 clearview plastic binder. Hopefully, having a copy of the legend from my "Handy Dandy" binder attached herewith will be useful for anyone interested.

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Forced landings in light aircraft FEEDBACK

The feedback comments regarding forced landing a light aircraft were very positive. It is good to know that the method worked so well during a recent flight skills check.

FORCED LANDINGS IN LIGHT AIRCRAFT

With acknowledgement to John Stewart-Smith for this excellent article in Flight Safety Bulletin Vol XXXV No.2 1999 from the Journal of the General Aviation Safety Council.
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